Abstract
Purpose – This study evaluates the impact of distance learning on early childhood development through a meta-analysis, focusing on the effect size of various practices, identifying potential publication biases, and conducting subgroup analyses based on electronic devices, intervention duration, and specific skills taught.
Methods/Design/Approach – A meta-analysis was conducted on 87 studies published between 2010 and 2021, selected from databases including Science Direct, Scopus, and PubMed. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis 3.0 software was employed for effect size calculations, variance analyses, and subgroup analyses, alongside publication bias tests using Funnel Scatter Plot, Clip and Fill, Rosenthal, and Orwin’s Fail-Safe N methods.
Findings – The overall effect size of distance learning on early childhood development was small (0.186) with significant heterogeneity (I² = 87.358%). Subgroup analysis revealed that mobile-based learning had a larger effect size (0.888) compared to desktop-based learning (0.028). The duration of intervention did not significantly affect outcomes, although longer interventions showed slightly better results. Cognitive and language skills benefited most from distance learning, while other skills like self-efficacy and music showed minimal or negative effects.
Originality/Value – This study offers a comprehensive analysis of distance learning's effectiveness in early childhood education, addressing gaps in the literature regarding the impact of device types and intervention durations. The findings contribute valuable insights for the development of more effective distance learning platforms for young children.
Practical Implications – The findings suggest that mobile-based distance learning is more effective for early childhood education than desktop-based approaches. Educators and policymakers should prioritize mobile-friendly platforms and focus on cognitive and language development for early learners. Further improvements in distance learning strategies are needed, particularly for non-cognitive skills, to enhance early childhood learning outcomes.
Keywords Distance learning, early childhood development, meta-analysis, mobile learning, cognitive skills.
Paper type Research paper
Keywords
References
Al Mamun, A., Ibrahim, M. D., Yusoff, M. N. H. B., & Fazal, S. A. (2018). Entrepreneurial leadership, performance, and sustainability of micro-enterprises in Malaysia. Sustainability, 10(5), 1591. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051591
Allen, M., Mabry, E., Mattrey, M., Bourhis, J., Titsworth, S., & Burrell, N. (2004). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Distance Learning: A Comparison Using Meta-Analysis. Journal of Communication, 54(3), 402–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2004.tb02636.x
Almanar, M. A. (2020). The Shifting of Face to Face Learning To Distance Learning During The Pandemic Covid-19. Globish: An English-Indonesian Journal for English, Education, and Culture, 9(2), 111. https://doi.org/10.31000/globish.v9i2.2772
Armstrong-Mensah, E., Ramsey-White, K., Yankey, B., & Self-Brown, S. (2020). COVID-19 and Distance Learning: Effects on Georgia State University School of Public Health Students. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 547. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.576227
Baş, G., & Beyhan, Ö. (2019). Revisiting the effect of teaching of learning strategies on academic achievement: A meta-analysis of the findings. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 5(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.20472/IAC.2018.035.007
Basilaia, G. (2020). Replacing the Classic Learning Form at Universities as an Immediate Response to the COVID-19 Virus Infection in Georgia. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, 8(3), 101–108. https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2020.3021
Berndt, A., Murray, C. M., Kennedy, K., Stanley, M. J., & Gilbert-Hunt, S. (2017). Effectiveness of distance learning strategies for continuing professional development (CPD) for rural allied health practitioners: A systematic review. BMC Medical Education, 17(1), 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-017-0949-5
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to Meta-Analysis. Wiley.
Cerniglia, L., Cimino, S., & Ammaniti, M. (2021). What are the effects of screen time on emotion regulation and academic achievements? A three-wave longitudinal study on children from 4 to 8 years of age. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 19(2), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X20969846
Champeaux, H., Mangiavacchi, L., Marchetta, F., & Piccoli, L. (2020). Learning at home: Distance learning solutions and child development during the COVID-19 lockdown. econstor.eu. https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/227346
Chien, S.-Y., Hwang, G.-J., & Jong, M. S.-Y. (2020). Effects of peer assessment within the context of spherical video-based virtual reality on EFL students’ English-Speaking performance and learning perceptions. Computers & Education, 146, 103751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103751
Christian, B., Salvador, C., & Christian, G. (2021). Virtual Reality (VR) in Superior Education Distance Learning: A Systematic Literature Review. JOIV: International Journal on …. http://joiv.org/index.php/joiv/article/view/632
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C.-L. C. (1982). Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19(2), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312019002237
Dalipi, F., Imran, A. S., Idrizi, F., & Aliu, H. (2017). An Analysis of Learner Experience with MOOCs in Mobile and Desktop Learning Environment. In J. I. Kantola, T. Barath, S. Nazir, & T. Andre (Eds.), Advances in Human Factors, Business Management, Training and Education (pp. 393–402). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42070-7_36
Ergen, B., & Kanadli, S. (2017). The effect of self-regulated learning strategies on academic achievement: A meta-analysis study. Egitim Arastirmalari - Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 2017(69), 55–74. https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2017.69.4
Fu, Q.-K., & Hwang, G.-J. (2018). Trends in mobile technology-supported collaborative learning: A systematic review of journal publications from 2007 to 2016. Computers & Education, 119, 129–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.01.004
Gu, W., Zhao, X., Yan, X., Wang, C., & Li, Q. (2019). Energy technological progress, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions: Empirical evidence from China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 236, 117666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117666
Herodotou, C., Rienties, B., Hlosta, M., Boroowa, A., Mangafa, C., & Zdrahal, Z. (2020). The scalable implementation of predictive learning analytics at a distance learning university: Insights from a longitudinal case study. The Internet and Higher Education, 45, 100725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2020.100725
Kaliisa, R., Palmer, E., & Miller, J. (2019). Mobile learning in higher education: A comparative analysis of developed and developing country contexts. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(2), 546–561. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12583
Karagöl, İ., & Esen, E. (2019). The Effect of Flipped Learning Approach on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(3), 708–727. https://doi.org/10.16986/HUJE.2018046755
Kusmaryono, I., & Jupriyanto, J. (2021). A Systematic Literature Review on the Effectiveness of Distance Learning: Problems, Opportunities, Challenges, and Predictions. International Journal of Education, 14(1). https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/ije/article/view/29191
Lan, Y.-J., Kan, Y.-H., Sung, Y.-T., & Chang, K.-E. (2016). Oral-performance language tasks for CSL beginners in Second Life. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3), 60–79.
Maloney, S., Haas, R., Keating, J. L., Molloy, E., Jolly, B., Sims, J., Morgan, P., & Haines, T. (2011). Effectiveness of Web-based versus face-to-face delivery of education in prescription of falls-prevention exercise to health professionals: Randomized trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 13(4), e116. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.1680
McArthur, B. A., Tough, S., & Madigan, S. (2021). Screen time and developmental and behavioral outcomes for preschool children. Pediatric Research, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-021-01572-w
Miller, P. A., Huijbregts, M., French, E., Taylor, D., Reinikka, K., Berezny, L., Fry, S., Grunin, A., & Harvey, M. (2008). Videoconferencing a stroke assessment training workshop: Effectiveness, acceptability, and cost. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 28(4), 256–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/chp.192
Mohammadi, A., Grosskopf, K., & Killingsworth, J. (2020). Workforce Development Through Online Experiential Learning for STEM Education. Adult Learning, 31(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/1045159519854547
Moro, C., Štromberga, Z., & Stirling, A. (2017). Virtualisation devices for student learning: Comparison between desktop-based (Oculus Rift) and mobile-based (Gear VR) virtual reality in medical and health science education. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 33(6). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3840
Muthuprasad, T., Aiswarya, S., Aditya, K. S., & Jha, G. K. (2021). Students’ perception and preference for online education in India during COVID-19 pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 3(1), 100101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100101
Nipp, C. M., Vogtle, L. K., & Warren, M. (2014). Clinical application of low vision rehabilitation strategies after completion of a computer-based training module. Occupational Therapy in Health Care, 28(3), 296–305. https://doi.org/10.3109/07380577.2014.908335
Parmaxi, A. (2020). Virtual reality in language learning: A systematic review and implications for research and practice. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1765392
Pedro, F., Subosa, M., Rivas, A., & Valverde, P. (2019). Artificial intelligence in education: Challenges and opportunities for sustainable development. MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. https://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/handle/20.500.12799/6533
Pinto, R. D., Peixoto, B., Melo, M., Cabral, L., & Bessa, M. (2021). Foreign language learning gamification using virtual reality—A systematic review of empirical research. Education Sciences, 11(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11050222
Prabandari, E., Sahirman, S., & Rahmandita, A. (2018). Preliminary Studies of The Implementation of Distance Learning for Child Labor Graduated from Junior and Senior High Schools Working In The Agricultural Processing Industry In Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, And Vietnam. Southeast Asia Journal on Open and Distance Learning, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.3379
Radianti, J., Majchrzak, T. A., Fromm, J., & Wohlgenannt, I. (2020). A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda. Computers & Education, 147, 103778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103778
Rothstein, H. R., Sutton, A. J., & Borenstein, M. (2006). Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis: Prevention, Assessment and Adjustments. John Wiley & Sons.
Schmid, C. H., Stijnen, T., & White, I. R. (2020). Handbook of Meta-Analysis. Chapman and Hall/CRC. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315119403
Steed, R. (2009). Instruction in cultural competency in a virtual 3D world. Journal of Interactive Instruction Development, 21, 10–23.
Talan, T. (2020). The Effect of Mobile Learning on Learning Performance: A Meta-Analysis Study. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 20(1), 79–103. https://doi.org/10.12738/jestp.2020.1.006
Turgut, S. (2017). The Effect of Game-Assisted Mathematics Education on Academic Achievement in Turkey: A Meta-Analysis Study. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 10(2), 195–206. https://doi.org/10.26822/iejee.2017236115
Turgut, S., & Turgut, İ. G. (2018). The Effects of Cooperative Learning on Mathematics Achievement in Turkey: A Meta-Analysis Study. International Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 663–680. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.11345a
Üstün, U., & Eryılmaz, A. (2014). Etkili Araştırma Sentezleri Yapabilmek için Bir Araştırma Yöntemi: Meta-Analiz. EĞİTİM VE BİLİM, 39(174). https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.3379
Yildiz, A., Nikodem, M., Vieta, E., Correll, C. U., & Baldessarini, R. J. (2015). A network meta-analysis on comparative efficacy and all-cause discontinuation of antimanic treatments in acute bipolar mania. Psychological Medicine, 45(2), 299–317. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714001305
Licensing
©️ 2024 The Author(s). Published by Global Educational Research Review.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
The terms of this license allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript or Published Version in institutional or subject repositories by the author(s).
Reprints and Permissions
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Permission is not required to reuse this article, in part or whole, as long as proper
attribution is given
to the original work.
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References
Al Mamun, A., Ibrahim, M. D., Yusoff, M. N. H. B., & Fazal, S. A. (2018). Entrepreneurial leadership, performance, and sustainability of micro-enterprises in Malaysia. Sustainability, 10(5), 1591. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051591
Allen, M., Mabry, E., Mattrey, M., Bourhis, J., Titsworth, S., & Burrell, N. (2004). Evaluating the Effectiveness of Distance Learning: A Comparison Using Meta-Analysis. Journal of Communication, 54(3), 402–420. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2004.tb02636.x
Almanar, M. A. (2020). The Shifting of Face to Face Learning To Distance Learning During The Pandemic Covid-19. Globish: An English-Indonesian Journal for English, Education, and Culture, 9(2), 111. https://doi.org/10.31000/globish.v9i2.2772
Armstrong-Mensah, E., Ramsey-White, K., Yankey, B., & Self-Brown, S. (2020). COVID-19 and Distance Learning: Effects on Georgia State University School of Public Health Students. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 547. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.576227
Baş, G., & Beyhan, Ö. (2019). Revisiting the effect of teaching of learning strategies on academic achievement: A meta-analysis of the findings. International Journal of Research in Education and Science, 5(1), 70–87. https://doi.org/10.20472/IAC.2018.035.007
Basilaia, G. (2020). Replacing the Classic Learning Form at Universities as an Immediate Response to the COVID-19 Virus Infection in Georgia. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, 8(3), 101–108. https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2020.3021
Berndt, A., Murray, C. M., Kennedy, K., Stanley, M. J., & Gilbert-Hunt, S. (2017). Effectiveness of distance learning strategies for continuing professional development (CPD) for rural allied health practitioners: A systematic review. BMC Medical Education, 17(1), 117. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-017-0949-5
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to Meta-Analysis. Wiley.
Cerniglia, L., Cimino, S., & Ammaniti, M. (2021). What are the effects of screen time on emotion regulation and academic achievements? A three-wave longitudinal study on children from 4 to 8 years of age. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 19(2), 145–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X20969846
Champeaux, H., Mangiavacchi, L., Marchetta, F., & Piccoli, L. (2020). Learning at home: Distance learning solutions and child development during the COVID-19 lockdown. econstor.eu. https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/227346
Chien, S.-Y., Hwang, G.-J., & Jong, M. S.-Y. (2020). Effects of peer assessment within the context of spherical video-based virtual reality on EFL students’ English-Speaking performance and learning perceptions. Computers & Education, 146, 103751. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103751
Christian, B., Salvador, C., & Christian, G. (2021). Virtual Reality (VR) in Superior Education Distance Learning: A Systematic Literature Review. JOIV: International Journal on …. http://joiv.org/index.php/joiv/article/view/632
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Cohen, P. A., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C.-L. C. (1982). Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19(2), 237–248. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312019002237
Dalipi, F., Imran, A. S., Idrizi, F., & Aliu, H. (2017). An Analysis of Learner Experience with MOOCs in Mobile and Desktop Learning Environment. In J. I. Kantola, T. Barath, S. Nazir, & T. Andre (Eds.), Advances in Human Factors, Business Management, Training and Education (pp. 393–402). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-42070-7_36
Ergen, B., & Kanadli, S. (2017). The effect of self-regulated learning strategies on academic achievement: A meta-analysis study. Egitim Arastirmalari - Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 2017(69), 55–74. https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2017.69.4
Fu, Q.-K., & Hwang, G.-J. (2018). Trends in mobile technology-supported collaborative learning: A systematic review of journal publications from 2007 to 2016. Computers & Education, 119, 129–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.01.004
Gu, W., Zhao, X., Yan, X., Wang, C., & Li, Q. (2019). Energy technological progress, energy consumption, and CO2 emissions: Empirical evidence from China. Journal of Cleaner Production, 236, 117666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117666
Herodotou, C., Rienties, B., Hlosta, M., Boroowa, A., Mangafa, C., & Zdrahal, Z. (2020). The scalable implementation of predictive learning analytics at a distance learning university: Insights from a longitudinal case study. The Internet and Higher Education, 45, 100725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2020.100725
Kaliisa, R., Palmer, E., & Miller, J. (2019). Mobile learning in higher education: A comparative analysis of developed and developing country contexts. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(2), 546–561. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12583
Karagöl, İ., & Esen, E. (2019). The Effect of Flipped Learning Approach on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(3), 708–727. https://doi.org/10.16986/HUJE.2018046755
Kusmaryono, I., & Jupriyanto, J. (2021). A Systematic Literature Review on the Effectiveness of Distance Learning: Problems, Opportunities, Challenges, and Predictions. International Journal of Education, 14(1). https://ejournal.upi.edu/index.php/ije/article/view/29191
Lan, Y.-J., Kan, Y.-H., Sung, Y.-T., & Chang, K.-E. (2016). Oral-performance language tasks for CSL beginners in Second Life. Language Learning & Technology, 20(3), 60–79.
Maloney, S., Haas, R., Keating, J. L., Molloy, E., Jolly, B., Sims, J., Morgan, P., & Haines, T. (2011). Effectiveness of Web-based versus face-to-face delivery of education in prescription of falls-prevention exercise to health professionals: Randomized trial. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 13(4), e116. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.1680
McArthur, B. A., Tough, S., & Madigan, S. (2021). Screen time and developmental and behavioral outcomes for preschool children. Pediatric Research, 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41390-021-01572-w
Miller, P. A., Huijbregts, M., French, E., Taylor, D., Reinikka, K., Berezny, L., Fry, S., Grunin, A., & Harvey, M. (2008). Videoconferencing a stroke assessment training workshop: Effectiveness, acceptability, and cost. Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, 28(4), 256–269. https://doi.org/10.1002/chp.192
Mohammadi, A., Grosskopf, K., & Killingsworth, J. (2020). Workforce Development Through Online Experiential Learning for STEM Education. Adult Learning, 31(1), 27–35. https://doi.org/10.1177/1045159519854547
Moro, C., Štromberga, Z., & Stirling, A. (2017). Virtualisation devices for student learning: Comparison between desktop-based (Oculus Rift) and mobile-based (Gear VR) virtual reality in medical and health science education. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 33(6). https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3840
Muthuprasad, T., Aiswarya, S., Aditya, K. S., & Jha, G. K. (2021). Students’ perception and preference for online education in India during COVID-19 pandemic. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 3(1), 100101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2020.100101
Nipp, C. M., Vogtle, L. K., & Warren, M. (2014). Clinical application of low vision rehabilitation strategies after completion of a computer-based training module. Occupational Therapy in Health Care, 28(3), 296–305. https://doi.org/10.3109/07380577.2014.908335
Parmaxi, A. (2020). Virtual reality in language learning: A systematic review and implications for research and practice. Interactive Learning Environments. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1765392
Pedro, F., Subosa, M., Rivas, A., & Valverde, P. (2019). Artificial intelligence in education: Challenges and opportunities for sustainable development. MINISTERIO DE EDUCACIÓN. https://repositorio.minedu.gob.pe/handle/20.500.12799/6533
Pinto, R. D., Peixoto, B., Melo, M., Cabral, L., & Bessa, M. (2021). Foreign language learning gamification using virtual reality—A systematic review of empirical research. Education Sciences, 11(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11050222
Prabandari, E., Sahirman, S., & Rahmandita, A. (2018). Preliminary Studies of The Implementation of Distance Learning for Child Labor Graduated from Junior and Senior High Schools Working In The Agricultural Processing Industry In Indonesia, Thailand, Cambodia, And Vietnam. Southeast Asia Journal on Open and Distance Learning, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.3379
Radianti, J., Majchrzak, T. A., Fromm, J., & Wohlgenannt, I. (2020). A systematic review of immersive virtual reality applications for higher education: Design elements, lessons learned, and research agenda. Computers & Education, 147, 103778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103778
Rothstein, H. R., Sutton, A. J., & Borenstein, M. (2006). Publication Bias in Meta-Analysis: Prevention, Assessment and Adjustments. John Wiley & Sons.
Schmid, C. H., Stijnen, T., & White, I. R. (2020). Handbook of Meta-Analysis. Chapman and Hall/CRC. https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315119403
Steed, R. (2009). Instruction in cultural competency in a virtual 3D world. Journal of Interactive Instruction Development, 21, 10–23.
Talan, T. (2020). The Effect of Mobile Learning on Learning Performance: A Meta-Analysis Study. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 20(1), 79–103. https://doi.org/10.12738/jestp.2020.1.006
Turgut, S. (2017). The Effect of Game-Assisted Mathematics Education on Academic Achievement in Turkey: A Meta-Analysis Study. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 10(2), 195–206. https://doi.org/10.26822/iejee.2017236115
Turgut, S., & Turgut, İ. G. (2018). The Effects of Cooperative Learning on Mathematics Achievement in Turkey: A Meta-Analysis Study. International Journal of Instruction, 11(3), 663–680. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.11345a
Üstün, U., & Eryılmaz, A. (2014). Etkili Araştırma Sentezleri Yapabilmek için Bir Araştırma Yöntemi: Meta-Analiz. EĞİTİM VE BİLİM, 39(174). https://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2014.3379
Yildiz, A., Nikodem, M., Vieta, E., Correll, C. U., & Baldessarini, R. J. (2015). A network meta-analysis on comparative efficacy and all-cause discontinuation of antimanic treatments in acute bipolar mania. Psychological Medicine, 45(2), 299–317. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291714001305
Licensing
©️ 2024 The Author(s). Published by Global Educational Research Review.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
The terms of this license allow the posting of the Accepted Manuscript or Published Version in institutional or subject repositories by the author(s).
Reprints and Permissions
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Permission is not required to reuse this article, in part or whole, as long as proper attribution is
given
to the original work.